SOUTH INDIAN KINGDOMS

PALLAVAS

Origin of the Pallavas

• The view that the Pallavas were the natives of Thondai mandalam itself was widely accepted by scholars.
• They are also identical with the Pulindas mentioned in the inscriptions of Ashoka.
• When Thondai mandalam was conquered by the Satavahanas, the Pallavas became their feudatories.
• After the fall of the Satavahanas in the third century A.D., they became independent.
• The Pallavas issued their earlier inscriptions in Prakrit and Sanskrit because of their Satavahana connections and also patronized Brahmanism.

Mahendravarman I (600 – 630 A.D.)

• The long-drawn Pallava – Chalukya Conflict began during his period.
• Pulakesin II marched against the Pallavas and captured the northern part of their kingdom.
• A Pallava inscription refers to the victory of Mahendravarman I at Pullalur.
• He was not able to recover the lost territory.
• Mahendravarman I was a follower of Jainism in the early part of his career.
• He was converted to Saivism by the influence of the Saiva saint Thirunavukkarasar alias Appar.
• He built a Siva temple at Tiruvadi.
• He assumed a number of titles like Gunabhara, Satyasandha, Chettakari (builder of temples) Chitrakarapuli, Vichitrachitta and Mattavilasa.
• He was a great builder of cave temples.
• The Mandagappattu inscription hails him as Vichitrachitta who constructed a temple for Brahma, Vishnu and Siva without the use of bricks, timber, metal and mortar.
• His rock-cut temples are found in a number of places like Vallam, Mahendravadi, Dalavanur, Pallavaram, Mandagappattu and Tiruchirappalli.
• He had also authored the Sanskrit work Mattavilasa Prahasanam.
• His title Chitrakarapuli reveals his talents in painting.
• He is also regarded as an expert in music.
• The music inscription at Kudumianmalai is ascribed to him.

Narasimhavarman I (630-668 A.D.)

• Narasimhavarman I was also known as Mamalla, which means ‘great wrestler’.
• He wanted to take avenge the defeat of his father at the hands of Chalukyan ruler Pulakesin II.
• His victory over Pulakesin II in the Battle of Manimangalam near Kanchi is mentioned in Kuram copper plates.
• The Pallava army under General Paranjothi pursued the retreating Chalukya army, entered Chalukya territory captured and destroyed the capital city of Vatapi.
• Narasimhavarman I assumed the title ‘Vatapi konda’.
• He regained the lost territory.
• Another notable achievement of Narasimhavarman I was his naval expedition to Sri Lanka.
• He restored the throne to his friend and Sri Lankan prince Manavarma.
• During his reign, Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava capital Kanchipuram.
• According to his account, the people of Kanchi esteemed great learning and the Ghatika at Kanchi served as a great centre of learning.
• Narasimhavarman I was the founder of Mamallapuram and the monolithic rathas were erected during his reign.

Narasimhavarman II or Rajasimha (695 – 722 A.D.)

• Narasimhavarman I was succeeded by Mahendravarman II and Parameswarvarman I and the Pallava – Chalukya conflict continued during their reign.
• Narasimhavarman II became the ruler of the Pallava kingdom.
• He was also known as Rajasimha.
• His regime was peaceful and he evinced more interest in developing art and architecture.
• The Shore Temple at Mamallapuram
• The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram was built in this period.
• He was also a great patron of art and letters.
• The famous Sanskrit scholar Dandin is said to have adorned his court.
• He sent embassies to China and the maritime trade flourished during his reign.
• Rajasimha assumed titles like Sankarabhakta, Vadhyavidyadhara and Agamapriya.
• He was succeeded by Parameswaravarman II and Nandivarman II.
• The Pallava rule lasted till the end of the ninth century A.D.
• The Chola king Aditya I defeated the last Pallava ruler Aparajita and seized the Kanchi region.
• The rule of Pallava dynasty came to an end.

Administration of the Pallavas

• The Pallavas had a well organized administrative system.
• The Pallava state was divided into Kottams.
• The Kottam was administered by officers appointed by the king.
• The king was at the centre of administration in which he was assisted by able ministers.
• He was the fountain of justice.
• He maintained a well – trained army.
• He provided land – grants to the temples known as Devadhana and also to the Brahmans known as Brahmadeya.
• It was also the responsibility of the central government to provide irrigation facilities to the lands.
• A number of irrigation tanks were dug by the Pallava kings.
• The irrigation tanks at Mahendravadi and Mamandoor were dug during the reign of Mahendravarman I.
• Detailed information on the tax system could also be traced from the Pallava inscriptions.
• Land tax was the primary source of government revenue. The Brahmadeya and Devadhana lands were exempted from tax.
• Traders and artisans such as carpenters, goldsmiths, washermen, oil – pressers and weavers paid taxes to the government.
• The Pallava inscriptions throw much light on the village assemblies called sabhas and their committees.
• They maintained records of all village lands looked after local affairs and managed temples.

Society under the Pallavas

• Tamil society witnessed a great change during the Pallava period.
• The caste system became rigid.
• The Brahmins occupied a high place in society.
• They were given land – grants by the kings and nobles.
• They were also given the responsibility of looking after the temples.
• The Pallava period also witnessed the rise of Saivism and Vaishnavism and also the decline of Buddhism and Jainism.
• The Saiva Nayanmars, the Vaishnava Alwars contributed to the growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism,
• This is known as the Bakthi Movement.
• They composed their hymns in the Tamil language.
• These hymns revealed the importance of devotion or Bakthi.
• The construction of temples by the Pallava kings paved the way for the spread of these two religions.

Education and Literature

• The Pallavas were great patrons of learning.
• Their capital Kanchi was an ancient centre of learning.
• The Ghatika at Kanchi was popular and it attracted students from all parts of India and abroad.
• The founder of the Kadamba dynasty Mayurasarman studied Vedas at Kanchi.
• Dinganaga a Buddhist writer came to study at Kanchi.
• Dharmapala who later became the Head of the Nalanda University belonged to Kanchi.
• Bharavi the great Sanskrit scholar lived in the time of Simhavishnu.
• Dandin another Sanskrit writer adorned the court of Narasimhavarman II.
• Mahendravaraman I composed the Sanskrit play Matta vilasa prahasanam.
• Tamil literature had also developed. The Nayanmars and Alwars composed religious hymns in Tamil.
• The Devaram composed by Nayanmars and the Nalayra Divya prabandam composed by Alwars represents the religious literature of the Pallava period. Perundevanar was patronized by Nandivarman II and he translated the Mahabharata as Bharatha venba in Tamil.
• Nandi kalambagam was another important work but the name of the author of this work is not known.
• Music and dance also developed during this period.

Pallava Art and Architecture

• The Pallavas introduced the art of excavating temples from the rock.
• The Dravidian style of temple architecture began with the Pallava rule.
• It was a gradual evolution starting from the cave temples to monolithic rathas and culminated in structural temples.
• The development of temple architecture under the Pallavas can be seen in four stages.
• Mahendravarman I introduced the rock-cut temples.
• This style of Pallava temples are seen at places like Mandagappattu, Mahendravadi, Mamandur, Dalavanur, Tiruchirappalli, Vallam, Siyamangalam and Tirukalukkunram.
• The second stage of Pallava architecture is represented by the monolithic rathas and Mandapas found at Mamallapuram.
• Narasimhavarman I took the credit for these wonderful architectural monuments.
• The five rathas popularly called as the Pancha Pandava rathas signifies five different styles of temple architecture. The mandapas contain beautiful sculptures on its walls.
• The most popular of these mandapas are Mahishasura mardhini Mandapa, Tirumurthi Mandapam and Varaha Mandapam. In the next stage, Rajasimha introduced the structural temples.
• The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and the Shore temple at Mamallapuram remain the finest examples of the early structural temples of the Pallavas.
• The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi is the greatest architectural masterpiece of the Pallava art.
• The Vaikundaperumal temple, Muktheeswara temple and Matagenswara temples at Kanchipuram belong to this stage of architecture.
• Apart from the sculptures found in the temples, the ‘Open Art Gallery’ at Mamallapuram remains an important monument bearing the sculptural beauty of this period.
• The Descent of the Ganges or the Penance of Arjuna is called a fresco painting in stone.
• The minute details as well as the theme of these sculptures such as the figures of lice – picking monkey, elephants of huge size and the figure of the ‘ascetic cat’ standing erect remain the proof for the talent of the sculptor.
• The Mamandur inscription contains a note on the notation of vocal music.
• The Kudumian malai inscription referred to musical notes and instruments.
• The Alwars and Nayanmars composed their hymns in various musical notes.
• Dance and drama also developed during this period.
• The sculptures of this period depict many dancing postures.
• The Sittannavasal paintings belonged to this period.
• The commentary called Dakshinchitra was compiled during the reign of Mahendravarman I, who had the title Chittirakkara puli.

IMPERIAL CHOLAS

• After the decline of the Sangam period, the Cholas became feudatories in Uraiyur.
• Their capital was Tanjore. They also extended their away in Sri Lanka and the Malay Peninsula. Therefore they are called the Imperial Cholas.
• Thousands of inscriptions found in the temples provide detailed information regarding the administration, society, economy and culture of the Chola period.
• The founder of the Imperial Chola line was Vijayalaya. He captured Tanjore from Muttaraiyars in 815 A.D. and built a temple for Durga.
• His son Aditya put an end to the Pallava kingdom by defeating Aparajita and annexed Thondai mandalam. Parantaka I was one of the important early Chola rulers.
• He defeated the Pandyas and the ruler of Ceylon.
• He suffered a defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakutas in the famous “battle of Takkolam”.
• Parantaka I was a great builder of temples.
• He also provided the vimana of the famous Nataraja temple at Chidambaram with a golden roof.
• The two famous Uttiramerur inscriptions that give a detailed account of the village administration under the Cholas belong to his reign.
• After a gap of thirty years, the Cholas regained their supremacy under Rajaraja I.

Rajaraja I (985 – 1014 A.D.)

• It was under Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I that the Chola power reached its highest point of glory.
• His military conquests were
• The defeat of the Chera ruler Bhaskara Ravi varman in the naval battle of Kandalursalai and the destruction of the Chera navy.
• The defeat of the Pandya ruler Amarabhujanga and establishment of Chola authority in the Pandya country.
• The conquest of Gangavadi, Tadigaipadi and Nolambapadi located in the Mysore region.
• The invasion of Sri Lanka which was entrusted to his son Rajendra I.
• The Sri Lankan king Mahinda V fled away from his country the Cholas annexed northern Sri Lanka.
• The capital was shifted from Anuradhapura to Polanaruva where a Shiva temple was built
• The Chola victory over the growing power of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani.
• The restoration of the Vengi throne to its rulers Saktivarman and Vimaladitya by defeating the Telugu Chodas.
• Rajaraja gave his daughter Kundavai in marriage to Vimaladitya.
• Rajaraja’s last military achievement was a naval expedition against the Maldive Islands which were conquered.
• Rajaraja assumed a number of titles like Mummidi Chola, Jayankonda and Sivapadasekara
• He was a devout follower of Saivism
• He completed the construction of the famous Rajarajeswara temple or Brihadeeswara temple at Tanjore in 1010 A.D.
• He also helped in the construction of a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam.

Rajendra I (1012 – 1044 A.D.)

• Rajendra had demonstrated his military ability by participating in his father’s campaigns.
• He continued his father’s policy of aggressive conquests and expansion.
• His important wars were
• Mahinda V the king of Sri Lanka attempted to recover from the Cholas the northern part of Ceylon.
• Rajendra defeated him and seized southern Sri Lanka.
• The whole of Sri Lanka was made part of the Chola Empire.
• He defeated Jayasimha II, the Western Chalukya king and the river Tungabadhra was recognised as the boundary between the Cholas and Chalukyas.
• The Chola army crossed the Ganges by defeating a number of rulers on its way.
• Rajendra defeated Mahipala I of Bengal.
• To commemorate this successful north – Indian campaign Rajendra founded the city of Gangai Konda Chola Puram and constructed the famous Rajesvaram temple in that city.
• He also excavated a large irrigation tank called Cholagangam on the western side of the city.
• He assumed the title Gangai kondan.
• Another famous venture of Rajendra was his naval expedition to Kadaram or Sri Vijaya Empire.
• He assumed the title Kadaram kondan.
• At the death of Rajendra I, the extent of the Chola Empire was at its peak.
• The river Tungabadhra was the northern boundary.
• The Pandya, Kerala and Mysore regions and also Sri Lanka formed part of the empire.
• Rajendra I assumed a number of titles, the most famous being Mudi kondan, Gangai kondan, Kadaram Kondan and Pandita Cholan.
• Like his father, he was also a devout Saiva and built a temple for that god at the new capital Gangai Konda Chola Puram.
• He made liberal endowments to this temple and to the Lord Nataraja temple at Chidambaram.
• He was also tolerant of the Vaishnava and Buddhist sects.
• After Rajendra I, the greatness of the Chola power was preserved by rulers like Kulottunga I and Kulottunga III.
• Kulottunga I was the grandson of Rajendra I through his daughter Ammanga Devi.
• He succeeded the Chola throne and thus united the Vengi kingdom with the Chola Empire.
• During his reign Sri Lanka became independent.
• Vengi and the Mysore region were captured by the western Chalukyas.
• Kulottunga I sent a large embassy of 72 merchants to China and maintained cordial relations with the kingdom of Sri Vijaya.
• Under Kulottunga III the central authority became weak.
• The rise of the feudatories like the Kadavarayas and the emergence of the Pandya power as a challenge to Chola supremacy contributed to the ultimate downfall of the Chola Empire.
• Rajendra III was the last Chola king who was defeated by Jatavarman Sundarapandya II.
• The Chola country was absorbed into the Pandya Empire.

Revenue

• The land revenue department was well organized.
• It was called as puravu vari thinaikkalam.
• All lands were carefully surveyed and classified for assessment of revenue.
• The residential portion of the village was called urnattam.
• These and other lands such as the lands belonging to temples were exempted from tax.
• During the hard times, there was remission of taxes and Kulottunga I became famous by abolishing tolls and earned the title – Sungam Tavirtta Cholan.
• The main items of government expenditure were the king and his court, army and navy, roads, irrigation tanks and canals.

Military Administration

• The Cholas maintained a regular standing army consisting of elephants, cavalry, infantry and navy. About seventy to eighty regiments were mentioned in the inscriptions.
• The royal troops were called Kaikkolaperum padai.
• Within this, there was a personal troop to defend the king known as Velaikkarar.
• Attention was given to the training of the army and military cantonments called kadagams existed.
• The Cholas paid special attention to their navy.
• They controlled the Malabar and Coromandal coasts.
• The Bay of Bengal became a Chola lake for some time.

Provincial Administration

• The Chola Empire was divided into mandalams and each mandalam into valanadus and nadus.
• In each nadu there were a number of autonomous villages.
• The royal princes or officers were in charge of mandalams. The valanadu was under periyanattar and nadu under nattar.
• The town was known as nagaram and it was under the administration of a council called nagarattar.

Village Assemblies

• The system of village autonomy with sabhas and their committees developed through the ages and reached its culmination during the Chola rule.
• Two inscriptions belonging to the period of Parantaka I found at Uttiramerur provide details of the formation and functions of village councils.
• That village was divided into thirty wards and each was to nominate its members to the village council.
• The qualifications to become a ward member were
• Ownership of at least one-fourth veli of land.
• Own residence.
• Above thirty years and below seventy years of age.
• Knowledge of Vedas.
• Certain norms of disqualification were also mentioned in the inscriptions. They were
• Those who had been members of the committees for the past three years.
• Those who had failed to submit accounts as committee members.
• Those who had committed sins.
• Those who had stolen the property of others.
• From the persons duly nominated, one was to be chosen for each ward by kudavolai system for a year.
• The names of eligible persons were written on palm – leaves and put into a pot.
• A young boy or girl would take out thirty names each for one ward.
• They were divided into six variyams such as
• Samvatsara variyam
• Eri variyam
• Thotta variyam
• Pancha variyam
• Pon variyam
• Puravu varivariyam to take up six different functions of the village administration
• The committee members were called variya perumakkal.
• They usually met in the temple or under a tree and passed resolutions.
• The number of committees and ward members varied from village to village.

Socio-economic Life

• The caste system was widely prevalent during the Chola period.
• Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoyed special privileges.
• The inscriptions of the later period of the Chola rule mention about two major divisions among the castes –
• Valangai
• Idangai castes.
• There was co-operation among various castes and sub-castes in social and religious life.
• The position of women did not improve.
• The practice of Sati was prevalent among the royal families.
• The devadasi system or dancing girls attached to temples emerged during this period.
• Both Saivism and Vaishnavism continued to flourish during the Chola period.
• A number of temples were built with the patronage of Chola kings and queens.
• The temples remained centres of economic activity during this period.
• Reclamation of forest lands and the construction and maintenance of irrigation tanks led to agricultural prosperity.
• The weaving industry, particularly the silk – weaving at Kanchi flourished.
• The metal works developed owing to the great demand of images for temples and utensils.
• Gold, silver and copper coins were issued in plenty at various denominations.
• Commercial contacts between the Chola Empire and China, Sumatra, Java and Arabia were extensively prevalent.
• Arabian horses were imported in large numbers to strengthen the cavalry.

Education and Literature

• Education was also given importance.
• Besides the temples and madas as educational centres, several educational institutions also flourished.
• The inscription at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal and Thirubhuvanai provide details of the colleges existed in these places.
• Apart from the Vedas and Epics, subjects like mathematics and medicine were taught in these institutions.
• The endowment of lands was made to run these institutions.
• The development of Tamil literature reached its peak during the Chola period.
• Sivakasintamani written by Thiruthakka devar and Kundalakesi belonged to 10th century.
• The Ramayana composed by Kamban and the Periyapuranam or Tiruttondar puranam by Sekkilar is the two masterpieces of this age.
• Jayankondar’s Kalingattupparani describes the Kalinga war fought by Kulotunga I.
• The Moovarula written by Ottakuthar depicts the life of three Chola kings.
• The Nalavenba was written by Pugalendi.
• The works on Tamil grammar like
• Kalladam by Kalladanar
• Yapperungalam by Amirtha sagarar, a Jain
• Nannul by Pavanandhi and Virasoliyam by Buddhamitra were the products of the Chola age.

Art and Architecture

• The Dravidian style of art and architecture reached its perfection under the Cholas.
• The chief feature of the Chola temple is the vimana.
• The early Chola temples were found at Narthamalai and Kodumbalur in Pudukottai district and at Srinivasanallur in Tiruchirappalli district.
• The Big Temple at Tanjore built by Rajaraja I is a masterpiece of South Indian art and architecture.
• It consists of the vimana, Ardha mandapa, maha mandapa and a large pavilion in the front known as the Nandi mandapa.
• Another notable contribution made by the Cholas to temple architecture is the Siva temple at Gangai Konda Chola Puram built by Rajendra I.
• The Airavathesvara temple at Darasuram in Tanjore District and the Kampaharesvara temple at Tribhuvanam are examples of later Chola temples.
• The Cholas also made rich contributions to the art of sculpture.
• The walls of the Chola temples such as the Tanjore and Gangai Konda Chola Puram temples contain numerous icons of large size with fine execution.
• The bronzes of the Chola period are world-famous.
• The bronze statues of Nataraja or dancing Siva are masterpieces.
• The Chola paintings were found on the walls of Narthamalai and Tanjore temples.